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The term Indian classical drama refers to the tradition of dramatic literature and performance in ancient India. The roots of drama in the Indian subcontinent can be traced back to the Rigveda (1200-1500 BCE), which contains a number of hymns in the form of dialogues, or even scenes, as well as hymns that make use of other literary forms such as animal fables However, Indian drama begins its classical stage in the Classical India with the composition of the Natya Shastra ( lit. The Science of Drama). Indian classical drama is regarded as the highest achievement of Sanskrit literature.Brandon (1981, xvii).
The Buddhist playwright, poet and philosopher Asvaghosa, who composed the Buddhacarita, is considered to have been one of the first Sanskrit dramatists along with Bhāsa, who likely lived in the 2nd century BCE, and is famous for writing two of the only surviving tragedies in Sanskrit drama.
Despite its name, a classical Sanskrit drama uses both Sanskrit and Prakrit languages giving it a bilingual nature. Sanskrit drama utilised , such as the hero ( nayaka), heroine ( nayika), or clown ( vidusaka). Actors may have specialised in a particular type. Mahābhāṣya by Patañjali contains the earliest reference to what may have been the seeds of Sanskrit drama.Richmond (1998, 517). This treatise on grammar provides a feasible date for the beginnings of theatre in India.
Kālidāsa in the 4th-5th century CE, was arguably one of ancient India's greatest Sanskrit dramatists. Three famous romantic plays written by Kālidāsa are the Mālavikāgnimitram ( Mālavikā and Agnimitra), Vikramōrvaśīyam ( Pertaining to Vikrama and Urvashi), and Abhijñānaśākuntalam ( The Recognition of Shakuntala). The last was inspired by a story in the Mahabharata and is the most famous. It was the first to be translated into English language and German language. Śakuntalā (in English translation) influenced Goethe's Faust (1808–1832). The next great Indian dramatist was Bhavabhuti (c. 7th century CE). He is said to have written the following three plays: Malati-Madhava, Mahaviracharita and Uttararamacarita. Among these three, the last two cover between them the entire epic of Ramayana. The powerful Indian emperor Harsha (606–648) is credited with having written three plays: the comedy Ratnavali, Priyadarsika, and the Buddhist drama Nagananda. Other famous Sanskrit include Śhudraka, Bhasa, and Asvaghosa. Though numerous plays written by these playwrights are still available, little is known about the authors themselves.
A terracotta mask that was likely used in theatrical performances was excavated in Chirand, Bihar. Stratigraphical analysis dates the find to the 3rd or 4th century BCE, thus making it likely that theatre in India was fairly developed during this time. It is broad enough to have been worn comfortably on the nose, and the actor can easily see through the perforated nose. Bharata Muni mentions Pratishirsha in his Natyashastra, and these masks were likely full-headed masks with diadems and appropriate hair style appendages.
Some of the earliest-surviving fragments of Sanskrit drama date from c.200 BCE.Brandon (1981, xvii) and Richmond (1998, 516-517). The Mahābhāṣya by Patañjali contains the earliest reference to what may have been the seeds of classical Sanskrit drama. This treatise on grammar from the 2nd century BCE provides a feasible date for the beginnings of theatre in India.
Since the time of Alexander the Great, the Indian subcontinent came into direct contact with Greek culture. This has led to a scholarly debate about how much influence Ancient Greek drama had upon the development of Indian theatre.Arthur Berriedale Keith, The Sanskrit Drama in Its Origin, Development, Theory & Practice (Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1992), p.57-68
Under the patronage of royal courts, performers belonged to professional companies that were directed by a stage manager ( sutradhara), who may also have acted.Brandon (1981, xvii) and Richmond (1998, 517). This task was thought of as being analogous to that of a Puppetry—the literal meaning of " sutradhara" is "holder of the strings or threads". The performers were trained rigorously in vocal and physical technique.Richmond (1998, 518). There were no prohibitions against female performers; companies were all-male, all-female, and of mixed gender. Certain sentiments were considered inappropriate for men to enact, however, and were thought better suited to women. Some performers played characters their own age, while others played characters younger or older than themselves. Of all the elements of theatre, the Treatise gives most attention to acting ( abhinaya), which consists of two styles: realistic ( lokadharmi) and conventional ( natyadharmi), though the major focus is on the latter.Richmond (1998, 518). The literal meaning of abhinaya is "to carry forwards".
Bhāsa's most famous plays are Svapnavasavadattam (Swapnavāsadatta) ("Vasavadatta's dream"), Pancharātra, and Pratijna Yaugandharayaanam ("The vows of Yaugandharayana"). Some other plays being Pratimanātaka, Abhishekanātaka, Bālacharita, Dūtavākya, Karnabhāra, Dūtaghatotkacha, Chārudatta, Madhyamavyayoga and Urubhanga.
Karnabharam is a critically acclaimed play and it is being subjected to lot of experimentation by the modern theatre groups in India.
Bhāsa is considered to be one of the best Sanskrit playwrights, second only to Kalidasa. He is earlier than Kalidasa and is dated to the 3rd or 4th century CE.Robert E. Goodwin (1998), The Playworld of Sanskrit Drama, Introduction, pg. xviiiMoriz Winternitz, History of Indian Literature, p.204-205
Kālidāsa also wrote two large epic poems, Raghuvaṃśa ("The Genealogy of Raghu") and Kumārasambhava ("Birth of Kumara"), and two smaller epics, Ṛitusaṃhāra ("Medley of Seasons") and Meghadūta (The Cloud Messenger), another 'perfect' work.
Kālidāsa's writing is characterized by the usage of simple but beautiful Sanskrit, and by his extensive use of . His similes have earned him the saying, Upama Kalidasasya (Kālidāsa owns simile). The full śloka reads: "upamā Kālidāsasya, Bhāraver artha gauravam | Daṇḍinah padalālityam, Māghe shanti trayoguṇah ||"
Bhavabhuti (8th century) is one of the great playwrights after Kalidasa.Gaurinath Bhattacharyya Shastri (1987). A Concise History of Classical Sanskrit Literature, p. 109. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. Other major Sanskrit playwrights include Vishakhadatta, Bhatta Narayana, Murari, Rajasekhara, Kshemisvara, Damodaramishra, and Krishnamishra.Gaurinath Bhattacharyya Shastri (1987). A Concise History of Classical Sanskrit Literature, pp. 111-119. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.
One of the hypotheses (as yet without consensus) of the origins of the "Trivandrum plays" of Bhasa is that these 13 plays were adapted from their original sources and brought to Kerala for choreography in the Koodiyattam tradition.
Vidyadhar Shastri wrote three Sanskrit plays viz. Purnanandam, Kalidainyam and Durbala Balam.
Prafulla Kumar Mishra has written the plays Chitrangada and Karuna.
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